ISSN: 0973-7510

E-ISSN: 2581-690X

Research Article | Open Access
Percy David Papa Akuetteh1-4, Lanlan Jin5, Zihang Li1, Tianyu Jiang1, Haoqing Zhu1, Kunbo Yuan1, Mengting Xu1, Shihan Du1 and Samuel Ken-En Gan1-4,6-8
1College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, Ouhai, Wenzhou 325060, Zhejiang Province, China.
2Wenzhou Municipal Key Lab for Applied Biomedical and Biopharmaceutical Informatics, Ouhai, Wenzhou 325060, Zhejiang Province, China.
3Zhejiang Bioinformatics International Science and Technology Cooperation Center, Ouhai, Wenzhou 325060, Zhejiang Province, China.
4Dorothy and George Hennings College of Science, Mathematics and Technology, Kean University, 1000 Morris Ave, Union, NJ 07083, USA.
5First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou – 325015, Zhejiang, China.
6Antibody and Product Development (APD) Lab of Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou 325060, Zhejiang, China.
7Department of Psychology, James Cook University, Singapore.
8School of Science and Technology, Singapore University of Social Sciences, Singapore.
Article Number: 10297 | © The Author(s). 2026
J Pure Appl Microbiol. 2026;20(1):576-589. https://doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.20.1.43
Received: 06 February 2025 | Accepted: 27 November 2025 | Published online: 02 March 2026
Issue online: March 2026
Abstract

Microbial migration between the ear, throat, and nasal cavities can aggravate certain otorhinolaryngological conditions. For instance, Staphylococcus aureus colonization in the middle ear increases otitis media occurrence, while nasal colonization can exacerbate allergic rhinitis (AR) symptoms. S. aureus produces superantigens (SAgs) that include T-cell SAgs (e.g. staphylococcal enterotoxins SEA, SEB, SEC, and SED), which cross-link class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules on antigen-presenting cells with T-cell receptors, causing widespread T-cell activation and cytokine release. It also produces B-cell superantigens, such as Protein A (SpA), which bind to immunoglobulins and activate B-cells, contributing to allergic airway diseases. The detection of these SAg genes and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) marker genes (mecA and femB) in both allergic and healthy individuals may enable the assessment of microbial transmission risk between the ear and nose. In this study, we quantified five SAg genes (SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, and SpA) and the MRSA markers mecA and femB using quantitative PCR (qPCR) in swab samples from 11 healthy individuals and one AR patient. The results demonstrated that these genes were not always co-present or correlated between an individual’s ear and nose samples. In several cases, MRSA marker genes were detected by qPCR despite the absence of S. aureus growth on selective culture, indicating potential detection of other carriers of these genes. These findings underscore the importance of quantifying SAg and MRSA gene levels in the ear and nose to establish baseline colonization and to assess potential risk factors for related otorhinolaryngological conditions.

Keywords

Enterotoxins, MRSA, Staphylococcus aureus, Superantigens

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© The Author(s) 2026. Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, sharing, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.