Bovine Mastitis: Causes and Phytoremedies

Mastitis is a highly frequent chronic ailment with inflammation in the udder of the milking cows. the causative agents are mostly microbes. It is economically prominent contamination of lactating cows resulting in reduced milk production. the disease is diagnosed by chemical, physical and nutritional changes in the milk and pathological changes in the milk glands. Prevention measures for the disease can be taken by proper and timely sanitation of the cowshed through and time again disinfection of the teat, mechanized milking process, etc. the application of bactericidal drugs generates resistant varieties of microbes that cross the allopathic boundary. In this regard, an attempt is taken to focus the plant-based pharmacopoeia. Medicinal plants are traditionally used to cure various diseases as they are comparatively accessible to administer orally in different forms and can be along with fodder. Keeping the above facts in view, the present review deals with different types of mastitis, causative pathogens, detection and diagnosis, and effective plant-based treatment process available to date.


INtRODuCtION
Dairy cows are considered the mother of human society.Fresh and hygienic milk is very much popular due to abundantly available nutraceutical. 1 As all the macro and micronutrients, vitamins, minerals growth factors and some other nutritional factors are there in the milk for which it is the most balanced and natural diet obtained universally. 2Poor production of milk is always less than the requirement due to various factors.Some constraints are inappropriate management, mismatched genetics, nutritional deficiency, unhealthy reproductive condition, and frequently infected teat along with the udder, internally and externally.These factors contribute adversely to insufficient production of milk by lactating cows. 3It is one of the most frequent diseases of cattle and capable of causing serious damage to dairy herds worldwide. 4The symptoms of the disease are unusual increment in the number of somatic cells and deterioration in the quality of milk. 5High somatic cell count (SCC) in mastic cows is detected by the flurooptoelectronic method. 6SCC approximately 200,000 cells/ml is the threshold value for mastitis. 7Mastitis also can transmit chronic diseases like tuberculosis brucellosis, leptospirosis, etc. through contaminated milk to consumers. 8The disease differs from other diseases of cattle as a plethora of mostly bacterial pathogens invades udder tissue.These stubborn pathogens enter the udder, navigate, infect and produce the toxin which inflammate the udder along with the teats which were more susceptible.The outcome of which is a drastic change in milk quality and quantity. 90][11] The total economic estimation towards loss is approximately ₹ 7824 in one month per cow. 10

types of Mastitis
Depending on the infection pattern, mastitis is of different types; contagious and environmental with a broad spectrum of microbes.Besides the above types, it can be subclinical or clinical. 12,13Contagious mastitis is generated from inflected ones and contaminated to healthy cows by the time of milking through hands.It can also spread through improper sanitization of milking machines or by cloths used during milking but in environmental mastitis, the causal pathogens originate from cowsheds, unhealthy filthy water for preparation of udder prior to milking, flies, mud holes. 13Intramammary infections (IMIS) were diagnosed as SCM.However, it is difficult to identify SCM as initially it appears inside without any visible inflammation or redness in the udder or teat but an increase of somatic cells in the milk act as an indicator. 14The occurrence of SCM was ~32.48% and considerably lowers in clinical mastitis 9.4%. 15SCM could not be noticed so easily but is always associated with loss of milk in the dairy herd. 16raditional and advanced therapies are applicable for the control of mastitis.The treatments were through bacteriocins, nanoparticle based, vaccination, antibiotics, and phytotherapy.These therapies are not effective because multiple factors (host, pathogen, and environment) are responsible for the disease. 17To date for curing mastitis, the broad-spectrum antibiotics were used as the common therapy.However, the consequence of this antibiotic therapy is the drug resistance microbes.][20] Thus, herbal therapy for mastitis treatment is an accurate alternative to be replaced for synthetic drug. 21

Causative Pathogens
3][24][25][26] Streptococcus dysgalctiae is a major causal microbe reported in the case of SCM in bovine herds followed by Clostridium perfrigens, Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma, Prototheca, Pasturella, Nocardia asteroids, Pseudomonas auriginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and yeasts. 27ctinomyces spp., Staphylococcus spp.and Streptococcus spp.are some pathogenic bacteria isolated from bovine mastitis. 28Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and Mycoplasma spp.5 Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp.and Staphylococcus aureus are isolated from the mastitis milk sample. 36Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, and Staphylococcus aureus are isolated and identified from samples collected from mastitis cow. 5 The most predominant bacterial pathogen responsible for the high prevalence in both subclinical and clinical mastitis was S. aureus followed by E. coli and S. agalactiae.The frequency of mastitis due to fungi and yeast was found to be very less as compared to the bacterial pathogens. 37Overuse of antibiotics and poor sanitation contributes to yeast mastitis. 34

Detection and Diagnosis
Mastitis is easy to detect and diagnose clinically, in which the type phenotypical observations are quite visible like red and swollen udder and fever in dairy herds (Figure).The texture of milk is different with flakes and clots than the normal type. 35,39It was also notified that during infection an uncountable group of white blood cells (leukocytes) invade the mammary gland.

Risk Factors
][42] Several risk factors like body weight, age, milk yield, udder type, teat size, floor and bedding, season, parity and duration of lactation are associated strongly with the pathogens of mastitis. 15Other factors are inherent like susceptibility of mammary gland for intramammary infections (IMI), breed type, previous mastitis history and lactation stage are also countable for the prevalence of mastitis. 43ue to the pathogenic load in lactating animals milk stasis (hindrance to milking) also enhances the density of disease.Various factors concerned with this disease are discussed below.

Age
Older cows having more body weights are susceptible to mastitis. 15There is a correlation between the age of the lactating cow and mastitis due to the relaxed sphincter muscles of teat. 44tress associated with old age makes the animal prone to a weak immune system.Hence the older cow's infection rate is persistent and ultimate loss is more due to the incidence of mastitis. 15

Breed
Cross breed jersey (70.41%) is more susceptible to mastitis in comparison to HF (16.33%) and local breeds (13.27%). 15In India, Jersey-Holstein cross breed cows are more prone (94.54%) to mastitis than indigenous breeds (31.25%). 16Maximum report of mastitis was observed in cross breed herd than local indigenous one as reported. 45

Species
Buffaloes are less susceptible to mastitis than cows. 46,47Buffaloes are highly resistant as they have tightly closed teat orifices.

Milk Yield
Increased incidence of mastitis in high yielders than low yielders stated by many workers.This may be due to variable immune response of cow against infection. 15,48,49Cross breeds are high yielders and have heavy body weight than indigenous cows.So, exposure to more body surface area also invites environmental microbes to generate mastitis.The body area and weight of the hybrid bovines have more physiological stress.Due to the higher production of milk opening of teat sphincters for a continuous period invites the colonization of microbes for mastitis. 15

Parity
The highest incidence of mastitis was seen in 5 th parity followed by 4 th , 3 rd , 2 nd and 6 th with the lowest incidence in 8 th one.The attributable reason is that IMI remains persistently up to 5 th parity stage and gradually declines. 50,51

Stage of lactation
Onset of lactation also sometimes generates contagious disease in milking animals.First month of lactation and last months were more critical for mastitis than the in between period. 15,52actation also harbours microorganisms due to lack of sanitation or other factors. 53Accordingly, first month of lactation is prominent for mastitis and gradually diminishes towards the onset of dry periods i.e., the last months of milk formation.The frequency of mastitis is more in first two months of lactation and 2-3 weeks from the beginning of dry period. 54Sometimes cows at the lactating period of early maximum days are more prone to environmental contaminants as reported by. 55,56Generally, first day of lactation is more susceptible (62.7% for mastitis might be due to the hypersensitivity of mammary glands).It is also observed that gradually it declines towards the late stage (11.2%). 52One of the prime factors of mastitis during the early lactation period is that oxidative stress is more and could not be neutralised by antioxidative defence. 43

Herd Size
There are significantly more (46.6%)mastitis reports with larger herd size than smaller one. 15,48The population of herds in the dairy industry is also a prominent factor for the maintenance of healthy lactating animals.Improper management of sanitation, hygiene, maintenance of the floor and bedding area are contributing significantly to the proliferation and transmission of mastitis microbiota. 15

Season
Highest incidence of mastitis is observed in the rainy season (62.24%) followed by the summer (26.53%) and the winter (4.08%). 15It seems that breakout of mastitis is more in low temperature.This depicts that the bacterial growth is more suitable in low temperature climate. 57,58

Floor type of the Shed
Cowshed matters much for the origin of mastitis.Earthen floor of shed makes the dairy animals maximum (48.98%) susceptible than brick floor (38.78%) and concrete floor (12.24%).Maximum occurrence of the disease is reported in the earthen floors might be due to improper cleaning and dampening. 15Poorly designed facilities increase the incidence of environmental mastitis. 41Cowsheds are mostly in unhygienic condition due to obvious reasons, which plays a major role in harbouring environmental pathogens for mastitis.Due to the humid climate basement of cowshed mostly remains muddy or swampy favouring the growth of mastitis. 43

udder type teat Wise Prevalence
Prevalence of mastitis is highest in cows with cup shaped udder (48.98%), then bowl shaped udder (30.61%) and round shaped udder (20.41%). 15Cup or pendulous udder (depending on the depth) is closer to filthy ground in unhygienic condition in a suitable basement for mastitis. 44ccurrence of mastitis is comparatively less in fore quarter 42.85% than hind (57.14%).Accordingly, the right hind teat is more prone (40%) than the left hind (17%), right fore 19% and left fore 24%. 15eat wise or udder wise contamination is more in hind part and the reason could be milk yield potential followed by contaminated hind legs and relaxed teat sphincters. 59Generally, in dairy cattle prevalence of mastitis in hind quarters were comparatively more due to the exposure of that part to dung and urine. 60

Method of Milking
Occurrence of mastitis is more frequent in hand milking process than the mechanised ones. 15Mechanised milking process is always advantageous to obtain safe and healthy milk. 61at Injury Prime pathway for entry of mastitis is the teat canal.Hence attention should and must be focused on the maintenance of a healthy and clean teat.Most important is to avoid teat injury, which is a risk factor for contamination of the intra-mammary glands.62

use of teat Disinfectant
Disinfectants are always advisable particularly for teat and udder which lowers a load of contaminants of mastitis proper sanitation is mandatory during the lactation period to control the spread of microbial infections and their colonial growth. 63

Habitat
Incidence of the disease is more in rural habitats than that of urban.Urban areas were more facilitated as regards general awareness of the disease, proper veterinary services and immediate attention to the animals as and when required.In contrast, rural areas have slow pace lifestyle, sluggish and careless towards the dairy herds.Negligence in sanitation, hygiene and hospital service in rural areas make the destitute cows more susceptible to microbes for mastitis or any other disease. 15

Dry Period
There is an increased risk of clinical mastitis with longer dry period >40 days. 64The frequency of infection increases during the two weeks prior to calving and two weeks following drying. 65However, the intramammary infection is 2 to 12 times higher during the dry period. 66

transition Period
A transition phase during parturition is more critical for any contagious disease in dairy cows.This phase is 4 weeks before the birth of calf and continues up to 4 weeks after. 67This is due to physiological stress associated with other factors like intensive growth of mammary glands, onset of overflowing synthesis and secretion of milk with higher energy requirement.To meet the energy, the need of oxygen is improved to a higher level. 68It is also experienced that during the peripartum duration alteration in defence mechanism is an inevitable change may be due to hormonal imbalance or any type of stress. 69

Milking Interval
Due to irregular intervals for milking and the pre, post milking treatment of the teat and teat canals mostly the time interval in lactating cows are neglected seriously.As the time gap is more than 12 hours per day, which allows the bacteria to colonize at the teat ends. 70

Blood Group
In Red Danish dairy cattle, the blood group is correlated with the emergence of mastitis during the lactation period.It was observed that bovines with the M blood group were more susceptible to bacterial infection as compared to the cattle herds lacking it. 71

Control and treatment
In spite of application of all the synthetic and strong antimicrobial agents, the microorganisms put their inherent quality of resistance by altering their genome structure. 72he outcome of this is drug resistance, which is sometimes considered a progressive evolutionary trend.This type of system generates resistant microbes which can survive, reproduce and stabilize themselves along with the microbiocidal drugs. 73The above facts forcibly paved the pathway in biological science to develop effectively the alternate branch of drug from the living world in which lower and higher groups of plants occupied the prime position in livestock health research. 74t was also observed that supplementation of vitamin D also reduces the bacterial load.Ancient literatures already established the fact that (Vanaspati), the plants were utilised in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani for curing different ailments of living world. 75According to the ethnomedicinal branch of science most or all plants possess an array of secondary metabolites otherwise known as natural products like terpenes, phenolics and nitrogen containing metabolites, alkaloids glucosinates, cyanogenic glycosides, exhibit significant defensive activity for their pests and most of the microbes. 76,77

Medicinal Plants used against Mastitis
The pharmacopoeia database evidenced the ethnomedicinal property of plants against various contamination created by the pathogenic organism.The significant aspect of application of plant-based therapeutics is the minimal side effects. 78,79Several plants (whole or part) and plant extracts were traditionally applied for the treatment of mastitis in dairy cows.The most frequently reported plant species are Amomum subulatum, Allium sativum, Capsicum annuum, Centratherum anthelmisticum, Citrus limon, Citrullus colocynthis, Curcuma longa, Cuminum cyminum, Lepidium sativum, Nigella sativa, Peganum harmala, Rosa indica, Sesamum indicum, Triticum aestivum, and Zingiber officinale. 21xtracts of Artemisia absinthium, Baccharis dracunculifolia, Cymbopogon nardus, Senna macranthera, with different solvents exhibited antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from mastitic cows. 80Methanolic extracts of Abtulion indicum, Brachiaria sp., Cenchrus ciliaris and Coccinia grandis showed conspicuous antimicrobial activities against bovine mastitis pathogens. 81Antibacterial activity and chemical profiling of Punica granatum was effective against pathogens isolated from cows with mastitis. 82In vitro bactericidal properties of some selected wild medicinal plants used to cure the most frequent disease of lactating bovine, the mastitis. 83Methanolic extracts of Abutilon indicum, Asteracantha longifolia, Brachiaria sp and Trichodesma indicum displayed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus isolated from Bovine mastitis. 77Distilled water extracts of Aloe barbadensis, Annona squamosal, Azadirachta indica, Curcuma longa, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Phyllanthus niruri and Terminalia chebula were found to be effective in treatment of Bovine mastitis. 36Traditionally used ethnoveterinary herbs in northwest Pakistan like Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Bunium persicum and Allium sativum were therapeutically active against most common microbial pathogen.Out of the abovementioned plants, alkaloid of two (B.persicum and A. sativum) strongly inhibits the growth of mastitis causing bacteria. 84Mastitis could be treated with intramammary infusion of extract of Rheum officinale and Angelica dahurica. 85xtracts of Allium sativum, Zingiber ofcinale and Capsicum annuum were highly effective against multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from buffalo mastitic milk. 86Bactericidal property of Artemisia nialgirica was found to be effective against Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia enterocolitica. 87Plant extracts of Artemisia herba-alba and Jasonia montana were found efficacious to counter bacterial flora of clinical or sub clinical mastitis. 34Extracts of Combretum mole and Xanthium strumarium manifested good in vitro antibacterial effect against Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cows with mastitis. 88Leave extracts of Syzygium cumini, Millingtonia hortensis and Zizyphus mauritiana have a strong antimicrobial effect against Staphylococci (Coagulase-negative) collected from lactating cows having mastitis. 89exane extract of Artemisia nilagirica has a low MIC value against Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flaxneri and Yersinia enterocolitica.Artemisia nilagirica also proved to be an active agent for treating related microbial diseases. 90cetone solvent extract of J. montana plant showed antibacterial activity against S. agalactiae, E. coli, S. aureus, Klebsiella spp and coagulasenegative Staphylococci. 34Crushed roots of Asparagus racemosus were with about 100gms of fruits of Trigonella foenum-graecum, Foeniculum vulgare, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellirica, Piper nigrum, Elettaria cardamomum, flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllu and 200gm of Alium cepa blended with water and further a small amount of jaggery was added to that, these formulations were administered orally to cure mastitis. 91ssential oil of Thymus serpyllum and T. vulgaris in different formulations were tested against the microbes of clinical and sub clinical mastitis, which can be a substitute for the common antibiotics in the near future. 92Acetone extracts of A. nilotica bark and Tetradenia riparia flowers showed the best activity against mastitis causing bacteria. 93imilarly, the alcoholic extracts of marigold, absinthe wormwood, essential oils of oregano, lavender, and rosemary could be effective against mastitis. 6Methanolic and ethanolic extracts of Laggera alata showed antibacterial activity against Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis. 94Methanolic extracts of Gymnema sylvestre, Holarrhenaanti dysenterica, Vernonia anthelmintica, Enicostemma littorale, Momordica charantia, Swertia chirata, Azadirachta indica and Caesalpinia bonducella showed more or less antibacterial activity against mastitis pathogens.Among these Azadirachta indica showed the most promising antibacterial properties. 95Bactericidal properties of extracts (aqueous and methanolic) of Tridax procumbens were applied against Staphylococcus aureus.It was noticed that the extracts were quite effective against the causal pathogens of mastitis in lactating animals. 96The therapeutic property of herbal raw materials as a treatment for mastitis can be used as an appropriate dose at the initial stage is a cost effective one.Above all to enhance the resistance of the body, contamination and inflammation of the teat and udder it is mandatory to follow the maintenance of aseptic environment around habitat of the lactating animal.Moreover, the efficacy of proper and balanced fodder helps a lot for the reduction of contamination.

CONCluSION
The rising dairy market and its versatile products throughout the globe are very lucrative and significant.As the consumers are of all the age groups like infants to super senior citizens, so care must and should be taken for the deliverance of healthy dairy products.With the increasing trend of antibiotic resistance, the frequent occurrence of bovine mastitis thrust a stake and stress on the dairy industry, particularly with more milking breeds.Attempts should be taken to reduce the prevalence of microbial contamination at the udder and the associated glands or tissues.Besides antibiotics, alternative therapies in the form of herbal application or supplementation in fodder can help in the treatment of mastitis.